![]() Generally, the particle size should be at least one order of magnitude smaller than the targeted emulsion droplet size. Particle size control is crucial for the use of solid CaCO 3 as a Pickering emulsifier. In-depth understanding of how the particle characteristics, such as the density, size, and surface properties, affect its gastric digestion behavior is necessary given that oral ingestion is the preferred route for CaCO 3 Pickering emulsions. However, understanding the gastrointestinal fate of the CaCO 3 Pickering emulsion has been minimally investigated. Until now, CaCO 3-based oil-in-water and water-in-oil Pickering emulsions have been reported. Among the vast variety of materials, food-grade calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) has gained attention as a Pickering emulsifier, particularly in the food, pharmacy, and medical industries, as it is of substantial importance for three main reasons: (1) CaCO 3 is a recognized food additive and pharmaceutical ingredient that is advantageous for its low-cost and availability in large quantities (2) CaCO 3 particles can impart acid-responsive properties into the Pickering emulsion it stabilizes by virtue of its acid-soluble nature (3) functional properties (calcium fortification and acid neutralization capacity) can also be added to the Pickering emulsion after converting CaCO 3 particles into absorbable calcium ions once exposed to gastric acid. In the recent decade, there has been growing research interest in assembling particles using ‘‘generally regarded as safe’’ (GRAS) inorganic materials, such as hydroxyapatite, calcium phosphate, tri-calcium phosphate, and calcium carbonate, to maximize emulsion stabilization and minimize side effects. Therefore, exploiting acid-sensitive Pickering emulsifiers that are non-toxic, biologically benign and compatible is of practical significance. However, most of these particles were fabricated from synthetic materials that may raise safety concerns. To achieve this goal, acid-sensitive Pickering emulsion system designs have been developed based on an environment that has many acid-labile particles. GI-responsive fashion seems feasible if the particles can respond to these ‘internal’ stimuli from the GI environment. When ingested, the stabilizing particles generally experience complex physicochemical changes as they are sequentially exposed to the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which encompasses the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. In the field of drug oral delivery and release, Pickering emulsions enable the delivery of cargo to sites of interest (e.g., small intestine and colon) through passive diffusion-controlled or actuated release manners, relying on the combination of emulsifier properties and external triggers. Pickering emulsions, a type of emulsion stabilized by solid particles rather than molecular surfactants, have received growing attention in the food, cosmetic, and biomedical industries due to their stability, which ranges from months to years, high internal payload capacity and added functionality derived from the stabilizing particles themselves. Taken together, the rationally designed CaCO 3 NP emulsion system holds potential as a calcium-fortified formulation for food, pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. With the encapsulation and delivery of the emulsion, VD3 exhibited satisfying bioavailability after simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Interestingly, the structured CaCO 3 NP-based Pickering emulsion displayed acid-trigged demulsification because of the disintegration of the CaCO 3 NPs into Ca 2+ in a simulated gastric environment, followed by efficient lipolysis of the lipid in simulated intestinal fluid. The emulsification stabilizing capability of the CaCO 3 NPs also favored the formation of high internal phase emulsion at a high φ of 0.7–0.8 with excellent emulsion stability at room temperature and at 4 ☌, thus protecting the encapsulated lipophilic bioactive, vitamin D3 (VD3), against degradation. The microstructure of the as-made CaCO 3 NPs stabilized Pickering emulsion can be controlled by varying the particle concentration ( c) and oil volume fraction ( φ). Herein, a type of edible oil-in-water Pickering emulsion was structured by calcium carbonate nanoparticles (CaCO 3 NPs mean particle size: 80 nm) and medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) for delivery of lipophilic drugs and simultaneous oral supplementation of calcium. Nanoparticles assembled from food-grade calcium carbonate have attracted attention because of their biocompatibility, digestibility, particle and surface features (such as size, surface area, and partial wettability), and stimuli-responsiveness offered by their acid-labile nature. ![]()
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